Kant was an empirical realist, not an empirical idealist Immanuel Kant: “As far as non-humans are concerned, we have no direct duties. They are there merely as the means to an end. The end is man.” This ethic remains at the heart of capitalism today, and is the deep root of our ecological crisis. ^164b8c From his book [[Less is More]] [11:51 AM · May 8, 2020](https://twitter.com/jasonhickel/status/1258711176038486019 Jason Hickel --- Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) is often regarded as the first real modern philosopher because his work fundamentally reshaped the way we understand knowledge, reality, and ethics. He bridged the gap between rationalism and empiricism, laying the foundation for much of modern Western philosophy. Kant’s approach, particularly his **Copernican Revolution in philosophy**, emphasised the active role of the human mind in shaping experience and knowledge, setting the stage for later developments in idealism, existentialism, and eventually postmodernism. **Key Defining Ideas of Kant:** 1. **The Copernican Revolution in Philosophy** Kant proposed that the mind actively structures sensory experience, rather than passively receiving it. He argued that space, time, and causality are not inherent in the external world but are forms imposed by the mind to make sense of phenomena. 2. **Phenomena vs. Noumena** Kant distinguished between the world as it appears to us (_phenomena_) and the world as it is in itself (_noumena_), claiming we can never have direct access to the latter. 3. **Autonomy and Ethics** In his moral philosophy, Kant emphasized the principle of autonomy and the _categorical imperative_: moral laws must be universalizable and derived from reason rather than contingent desires. 4. **Transcendental Idealism** Kant posited that knowledge arises from the interplay of sensory data and innate cognitive structures, introducing a framework that influences later philosophical inquiries into subjectivity and truth. **Timeline of Kant’s Influence:** 1. **Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)** Published key works like _Critique of Pure Reason_ (1781) and _Critique of Practical Reason_ (1788), laying the groundwork for modern epistemology, metaphysics, and ethics. 2. **German Idealism (Early 19th Century)** • **Friedrich Schelling (1775–1854)** and **Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762–1814)** expanded Kant’s ideas about the self and subjectivity into metaphysical systems. • **Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831)** developed dialectical idealism, integrating Kantian insights into a historical process of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. 3. **Existentialism and Phenomenology (19th–20th Century)** • **Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855)** focused on individual freedom and subjectivity, emphasizing the personal, ethical struggle, echoing Kant’s autonomy. • **Edmund Husserl (1859–1938)** and **Martin Heidegger (1889–1976)** extended Kant’s focus on the structures of experience through phenomenology, exploring the nature of being and consciousness. 4. **Structuralism and Poststructuralism (Mid-20th Century)** • **Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913)** introduced structuralism, examining language as a system that shapes meaning—a concept echoing Kant’s emphasis on the mind shaping reality. • **Michel Foucault (1926–1984)** and **Jacques Derrida (1930–2004)** critiqued universal structures, focusing on how power and language construct knowledge, reflecting Kant’s distinction between phenomena and noumena. 5. **Postmodernism (Late 20th Century)** • Thinkers like **[[Jean-François Lyotard]] (1924–1998)** rejected grand narratives, emphasizing relativism, plurality, and the instability of truth—developments rooted in Kant’s challenge to objective knowledge. • **Richard Rorty (1931–2007)** brought pragmatism into conversation with postmodernism, furthering skepticism about universal truths. **How Kant’s Ideas Encapsulate Postmodernism:** 1. **Critique of Objective Knowledge** Kant’s distinction between phenomena and noumena laid the groundwork for postmodern skepticism about universal truths. Postmodernism builds on the idea that reality is mediated by subjective structures (e.g., language, culture, power). 2. **Focus on Subjectivity and Relativity** Kant’s emphasis on the active role of the mind parallels postmodernism’s interest in how individuals and societies construct meaning. 3. **Challenge to Metaphysical Certainty** By showing that knowledge is limited to the realm of appearances, Kant foreshadowed the postmodern critique of absolute truths and the exploration of epistemic limits. 4. **Plurality and Fragmentation** Postmodernism’s embrace of pluralism echoes Kant’s recognition of the complexity of human perception and the impossibility of accessing ultimate reality directly. **Conclusion:** Kant’s philosophy initiated a seismic shift in Western thought, shaping movements from idealism to existentialism and beyond. His insights into the active role of the mind, the limits of knowledge, and the universality of ethics created a foundation that resonates through postmodernism’s deconstruction of grand narratives, its focus on subjectivity, and its critique of metaphysical certainty. Kant stands as a pivotal figure in the lineage of modern and postmodern philosophy. --- [Kantian Ethics and the Animal Turn. On the Contemporary Defence of Kant’s Indirect Duty View](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7919796/#:~:text=In%20other%20words%2C%20because%20animals,to%20persons%2C%20never%20to%20things.)