Liberalism provided the ideological foundation for many revolutionary demands, such as individual rights, equality before the law, constitutional governance, and freedom from [[Arbitrary]] rule. ### Liberalism leading up to the 1789 French Revolution. ##### 1. Origins of Liberalism Liberalism as a political [[Philosophy]] emerged during [[The Enlightenment]] in the 17th and 18th centuries, though its roots can be traced further back: • Classical Roots: • Ancient Greek [[Philosophy]] (e.g., ideas of citizenship and [[Democracy]] in Athens) and Roman law (notions of legal rights and republican governance) laid early groundwork for liberal principles. • The Renaissance revived interest in classical ideas of [[Individualism]] and civic humanism, inspiring new political thought. • The Protestant Reformation (16th century): • Martin Luther and other reformers challenged the authority of the Catholic Church, asserting individual conscience and the right to interpret religious texts. This emphasis on individual autonomy influenced early liberal thought. • The Social Contract Theorists: • Liberalism’s foundations were firmly established in the 17th century through the work of thinkers like [[John Locke]] (1632–1704). Locke’s ideas on natural rights—life, liberty, and property—and his theory of the social contract argued for limited [[Government]] and the protection of individual freedoms. These ideas directly influenced revolutionary thought in France. ##### 2. Spread of Liberalism Liberalism spread through a combination of intellectual, economic, and social developments: • The Enlightenment (18th century): • Enlightenment thinkers, particularly in France, expanded liberal ideas. Voltaire advocated for freedom of speech and religious tolerance. [[Montesquieu]] proposed the separation of powers as a safeguard against tyranny. [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] argued for popular sovereignty, directly challenging [[Absolutism]]. • These ideas were disseminated through books, pamphlets, and salons, which fostered debate among the educated elite. • Economic Liberalism: • Thinkers like [[Adam Smith]] (1723–1790) promoted free-market [[Economics]], criticising feudal restrictions and mercantilism. His ideas on economic liberty appealed to the growing bourgeoisie in France, who sought greater economic and political influence. • Influence of the American Revolution (1775–1783): • The American Revolution demonstrated the practical application of liberal ideas, particularly through the Declaration of Independence (1776) and the U.S. Constitution (1787). These events inspired French intellectuals and reformers, proving that liberal ideals could lead to the creation of a new political order. • The Role of Print Culture: • The expansion of literacy and the growth of newspapers, pamphlets, and books allowed liberal ideas to reach a broader audience, including urban workers and rural communities. 3. Development of Liberalism Leading to [[The French Revolution]] By the late 18th century, liberalism had evolved into a force challenging the established social and political order in France: • Critique of [[Absolutism]]: • Liberal thinkers opposed the concentration of power in the [[Monarchy]], arguing that sovereignty should rest with the people or a constitutionally constrained [[Government]]. The Bourbon monarchy’s inability to reform and adapt further fueled this critique. • Focus on Rights and Equality: • The Enlightenment emphasis on universal human rights and equality before the law resonated with the Third Estate (the commoners), who faced legal and social discrimination under the ancien régime. • Economic Frustrations: • Liberalism’s critique of feudal privileges aligned with the grievances of the bourgeoisie, who were excluded from political power despite their growing economic influence. They embraced liberal calls for free trade, fair taxation, and property rights. • Social Contract and Popular Sovereignty: • Rousseau’s ideas on the general will and the legitimacy of [[Government]] rooted in the consent of the governed gained traction among those seeking to replace monarchy with republicanism or constitutionalism. • The Role of the Philosophes: • French Enlightenment thinkers like Diderot, Condorcet, and Turgot provided intellectual ammunition for revolutionaries. They critiqued the feudal system, church power, and the monarchy while envisioning a [[Society]] based on reason, merit, and equality. 4. Liberalism in the French Revolution Liberalism became a rallying cry during the Revolution, manifesting in several key revolutionary moments: • The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789): • This foundational document enshrined liberal ideals, proclaiming rights to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression, as well as the principle of equality before the law. • Constitutional Monarchy (1789–1792): • Early revolutionaries sought to limit the king’s powers through a constitution, drawing directly on liberal principles of government. • Republicanism and Radicalisation: • As the Revolution progressed, liberal ideas were radicalised. The notion of popular sovereignty led to the establishment of the French Republic in 1792. Counterfactual Reflection Without [[The Enlightenment]] and the spread of liberalism, the French Revolution might have lacked its ideological coherence. Liberalism not only provided a critique of the ancien régime but also outlined an alternative vision of governance, rights, and society. Its roots in earlier philosophical traditions and its spread through Enlightenment thinkers ensured that by 1789, liberal ideas were ready to ignite revolutionary [[Change]]. ### Liberals Criticized for Self-Protectiveness Over Systemic Change 1. **[[Mark Fisher]]** – In *[[Capitalist Realism]]* (2009), Fisher criticizes liberal "consciousness-raising" politics, arguing that it often prioritizes individual moralism over collective action. He suggests that liberal discourse can become more about signaling personal virtue than challenging structural inequalities. 2. **Walter Benn Michaels** – In *The Trouble with Diversity* (2006), Michaels argues that liberals often focus on identity politics and personal recognition rather than economic redistribution, effectively protecting their own class interests while appearing progressive. 3. **Thomas Frank** – In *Listen, Liberal* (2016), Frank critiques the Democratic Party’s professional-class liberalism, accusing it of abandoning working-class concerns in favor of policies that benefit elite liberals (e.g., meritocracy, tech-driven solutions). 4. **Fredrik deBoer** – In *The Cult of Smart* (2020) and his essays, deBoer criticizes liberals for embracing meritocratic ideals that justify inequality, focusing on individual achievement rather than collective welfare. 5. **[[Slavoj Žižek]]** – In works like *The Courage of Hopelessness* (2017), Žižek mocks liberal "cultural [[Capitalism]]," where symbolic gestures (e.g., ethical [[Consumerism]], performative wokeness) replace substantive political action. 6. **[[Chris Hedges]]** – In *[[Death]] of the Liberal Class* (2010), Hedges argues that institutional liberals (media, academia, NGOs) have become complicit with power, prioritizing self-preservation over radical [[Change]]. ### Common Themes: - **Moral Posturing**: Liberals are accused of caring more about appearing righteous (e.g., language policing, symbolic allyship) than material justice. - **Class Blindness**: Many critics argue liberals ignore economic inequality while focusing on cultural issues. - **Incrementalism**: Liberals are seen as preferring safe, reformist measures over transformative politics. `Concepts:` [[Politics]] `Knowledge Base:` [[Digital index]]