Here is a timeline of what is known about Native Americans before the arrival of Europeans, based on archaeological, anthropological, and historical evidence: Prehistoric Periods of Native America c. 15,000–13,000 BCE: Early Migration to the Americas • Arrival via Beringia: The first humans likely arrived in the Americas from Siberia via the Bering Land Bridge (Beringia), which connected Asia and North America during the last Ice Age. • Evidence from sites such as Monte Verde in Chile suggests human activity as early as 14,500 BCE. • These early migrants were hunter-gatherers, relying on large megafauna like mammoths and mastodons for subsistence. c. 12,000–8,000 BCE: Paleo-Indian Period • Clovis [[Culture]] (c. 11,000 BCE): This culture, characterised by distinctive fluted spear points, represents one of the earliest widespread archaeological cultures in North America. • Megafauna [[Extinction]]: By around 10,000 BCE, many large [[Animals]] became extinct, likely due to [[Climate Change]] and overhunting, leading to shifts in subsistence strategies. c. 8,000–1,000 BCE: Archaic Period • Adaptation to Diverse Environments: Native Americans began to adapt to regional environments, using more varied [[Food]] sources, including smaller game, fish, and wild plants. • Early forms of [[Agriculture]] began to appear, especially in regions like Mesoamerica. c. 3,000–1,000 BCE: Early Agriculture and Sedentary Life • [[Domestication]] of Crops: Key crops like maize (corn), beans, squash, and potatoes were domesticated, with maize cultivation beginning in Mesoamerica and spreading northward. • Permanent Settlements: Societies became more sedentary, with villages forming around fertile agricultural areas. Development of Major Cultural Traditions (1,000 BCE–1,500 CE) 1,000 BCE–700 CE: [[Woodland]] Period (Eastern North America) • Adena and Hopewell Cultures: These cultures are noted for their elaborate earthworks and burial mounds, as well as long-distance trade networks involving materials like obsidian, mica, and copper. c. 200 CE–1,500 CE: Ancestral Puebloans (Southwest) • Basketmaker Periods: Early Ancestral Puebloans developed sophisticated agriculture and pottery. • Chaco Canyon (900–1150 CE): The Ancestral Puebloans built large multi-story structures (pueblos) and developed extensive trade networks across the Southwest. c. 700–1,600 CE: Mississippian Period (Southeast) • [[Cahokia]] (c. 1050–1350 CE): Near modern-day St. Louis, Cahokia was a major urban centre, featuring large earth mounds and a population of 10,000–20,000. • The Mississippian culture was marked by complex chiefdoms, agriculture, and extensive trade. c. 500–1,500 CE: Arctic and Subarctic Cultures • Thule Culture: Ancestors of modern Inuit peoples, the Thule people developed advanced technologies for Arctic environments, such as dog sleds and kayaks. c. 1,000–1,500 CE: Expansion of Agriculture and Complex Societies • Many Native American societies achieved high levels of organisation, from the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy) in the Northeast to the Aztec and Maya civilisations in Mesoamerica. On the Eve of European Arrival (c. 1,500 CE) • Population Estimates: The pre-Columbian population of the Americas is estimated to have been between 50 and 100 million people, with around 10 million in what is now the United States. • Diverse Societies: Native Americans lived in thousands of distinct cultural groups, with diverse languages, religions, and social structures. • Technological Innovations: Advanced agricultural techniques, architectural achievements (like mounds and pueblos), and trade networks were common. • Environmental Stewardship: Many groups actively managed landscapes through controlled burns, irrigation, and other methods. By the late 15th century, these complex societies were thriving, setting the stage for their eventual encounters with European explorers. `Concepts:` `Knowledge Base:` [[Digital index]]