The Harappan Civilisation (c. 3300–1300 BCE) ### Overview · Also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, it was one of the world’s earliest urban civilisations, alongside Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. · Flourished in the Indus River Valley (modern-day Pakistan and northwest India). · Major urban centers: Harappa (discovered first, hence the name), Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi, Lothal. · Known for advanced urban planning, trade networks, and undeciphered script. ### Key Features · Urban Planning: Cities laid out in grid patterns with standardized bricks, organised streets, and sophisticated drainage systems. · Architecture: Notable structures include the Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro, granaries, and fortified citadels. · Economy: Based on agriculture (wheat, barley, cotton), animal husbandry, and long-distance trade with Mesopotamia and Central Asia. · Craft and Technology: Skilled in metallurgy (bronze, copper), bead-making, pottery, and seal carving (steatite seals with animal motifs and script). · Writing System: Indus script (found on seals and pottery)—still undeciphered, limiting understanding of their language and governance. ### Society and Culture · Likely a stratified society with evidence of social organization but no clear signs of monarchy or temples. · Religious practices possibly included Mother Goddess worship, proto-Shiva figures (Pashupati seal), and ritual bathing. · Artifacts suggest a focus on hygiene and public welfare (e.g., wells, bathing platforms). ### Decline · Theories for decline (c. 1900–1300 BCE): · Climate change (drying of rivers, shifts in monsoon). · River course changes affecting agriculture. · Possible invasions/migrations (Aryans mentioned in older theories, but debated). · Gradual de-urbanization and dispersal to smaller settlements. ### Legacy · Contributed to later South Asian cultural practices (e.g., ritual bathing, possibly yoga precursors). · Urban concepts influenced subsequent civilizations in the Indian subcontinent. · Archaeological sites provide insights into early urban life without known warfare or monumental palaces. ### Challenges in Study · Script remains undeciphered. · Limited knowledge of political structure and belief systems. · Many sites likely lost or undiscovered due to river silt and modern settlement. Significance: The Harappan Civilisation represents a peak of early urban sophistication, emphasising planning, trade, and social organisation, yet it remains enigmatic due to the lack of deciphered records. `Concepts:` `Knowledge Base:`